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Important technical improvements

  • 1 существенные технические усовершенствования

    Существенные технические усовершенствования-- Important technical improvements and reduced hardware costs have made digital computer control systems economically very attractive.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > существенные технические усовершенствования

  • 2 экономически выгодный

    Экономически выгодный
     Only when the required volume of additional structure approaches the volume of the needed stabilizer does the embedded conductor design become economical.
     Important technical improvements and reduced hardware costs have made digital computer control systems economically very attractive.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > экономически выгодный

  • 3 técnica

    f.
    1 technique, skill, expertise, know-how.
    2 procedure, method.
    * * *
    1 (tecnología) technique, technology
    2 (habilidad) technique, method
    3 (ingeniería) engineering
    * * *
    1. f., (m. - técnico) 2. noun f.
    skill, technique
    3. f., (m. - técnico)
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=método) technique
    2) (=tecnología) technology
    3) (=destreza) skill
    técnico
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( método) technique
    b) ( destreza) skill
    2) ( tecnología) technology
    3) ( en baloncesto) technical foul
    * * *
    = approach [approaches, -pl.], know-how, mechanics, skill, technique, technic.
    Ex. During the last twenty years the variety of approaches to the organisation of knowledge has proliferated with the introduction of computer-based methods.
    Ex. What was lacking, however, was the know-how for forming and running such groups.
    Ex. However, it is clear that the mechanics of searching post-coordinate indexes differ from those involved in searching pre-coordinate indexes.
    Ex. However, successful human free language indexing is very dependent upon the skills of the individual indexer.
    Ex. Improvements in document delivery services (DDS) via the further application of techniques such as facsimile transmission will also have an important role to play.
    Ex. The technic of automatic indexing indicates a list of key-words (simple and compound words) to an expert in a given field.
    ----
    * arte y técnica de escribir obras de teatro = playwriting.
    * desarrollar una técnica = develop + skill, build + skill.
    * dominar una técnica = master + technique.
    * técnica analítica = analytical technique.
    * técnica bibliométrica = bibliometric technique.
    * técnica bibliotecaria = library technique.
    * técnica cluster = clustering technique.
    * técnica convolucionista = convolution technique.
    * técnica de apoyo = enabling skill.
    * técnica de audio simultáneo = audio streaming.
    * técnica de búsqueda automatizada = computer-searching technique.
    * técnica de construcción = construction technique.
    * técnica de diseño = design technique.
    * técnica de encuadernación = binding technique.
    * técnica de fabricación = construction technique.
    * técnica de grupo nominal = nominal group technique.
    * técnica de incidencias = critical incident technique.
    * técnica de investigación = research technique.
    * técnica Delphi, la = Delphi technique, the.
    * técnica de mercado = merchandising technique.
    * técnica de navegación = navigational technique.
    * técnica de recuperación de información por coincidencia óptima = best match technique.
    * técnica de recuperación por medio de la lógica difusa = fuzzy IR technique.
    * técnica de repografía = reprography technique.
    * técnica de vídeo simultáneo = video streaming.
    * técnica documental = document-handling technique.
    * técnicas de composición escrita = writing skills.
    * técnicas de estudio = study skills.
    * técnicas de proyección = forecasting techniques.
    * técnicas de redacción = writing skills.
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( método) technique
    b) ( destreza) skill
    2) ( tecnología) technology
    3) ( en baloncesto) technical foul
    * * *
    = approach [approaches, -pl.], know-how, mechanics, skill, technique, technic.

    Ex: During the last twenty years the variety of approaches to the organisation of knowledge has proliferated with the introduction of computer-based methods.

    Ex: What was lacking, however, was the know-how for forming and running such groups.
    Ex: However, it is clear that the mechanics of searching post-coordinate indexes differ from those involved in searching pre-coordinate indexes.
    Ex: However, successful human free language indexing is very dependent upon the skills of the individual indexer.
    Ex: Improvements in document delivery services (DDS) via the further application of techniques such as facsimile transmission will also have an important role to play.
    Ex: The technic of automatic indexing indicates a list of key-words (simple and compound words) to an expert in a given field.
    * arte y técnica de escribir obras de teatro = playwriting.
    * desarrollar una técnica = develop + skill, build + skill.
    * dominar una técnica = master + technique.
    * técnica analítica = analytical technique.
    * técnica bibliométrica = bibliometric technique.
    * técnica bibliotecaria = library technique.
    * técnica cluster = clustering technique.
    * técnica convolucionista = convolution technique.
    * técnica de apoyo = enabling skill.
    * técnica de audio simultáneo = audio streaming.
    * técnica de búsqueda automatizada = computer-searching technique.
    * técnica de construcción = construction technique.
    * técnica de diseño = design technique.
    * técnica de encuadernación = binding technique.
    * técnica de fabricación = construction technique.
    * técnica de grupo nominal = nominal group technique.
    * técnica de incidencias = critical incident technique.
    * técnica de investigación = research technique.
    * técnica Delphi, la = Delphi technique, the.
    * técnica de mercado = merchandising technique.
    * técnica de navegación = navigational technique.
    * técnica de recuperación de información por coincidencia óptima = best match technique.
    * técnica de recuperación por medio de la lógica difusa = fuzzy IR technique.
    * técnica de repografía = reprography technique.
    * técnica de vídeo simultáneo = video streaming.
    * técnica documental = document-handling technique.
    * técnicas de composición escrita = writing skills.
    * técnicas de estudio = study skills.
    * técnicas de proyección = forecasting techniques.
    * técnicas de redacción = writing skills.

    * * *
    A
    1 (método) technique
    2 (habilidad, destreza) skill
    conduce con mucha técnica she's a very skilful driver
    B (tecnología) technology
    avances de la técnica advances in technology
    Compuestos:
    electronic technology
    hydraulic technology
    C (en baloncesto) technical foul
    * * *

     

    técnica sustantivo femenino
    1


    2 ( tecnología) technology
    3 ( en baloncesto) technical foul
    técnico,-a
    I adjetivo technical
    un problema técnico, a technical hitch
    II sustantivo masculino y femenino technician, technical expert
    técnica sustantivo femenino
    1 (método) technique
    2 (tecnología) technology
    ' técnica' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    calcografía
    - carrera
    - ensayar
    - escala
    - ficha
    - grabada
    - grabado
    - imprenta
    - inédita
    - inédito
    - inventar
    - ITV
    - maravilla
    - novedosa
    - novedoso
    - relojería
    - revista
    - tela
    - vídeo
    - aplicación
    - asistencia
    - dotar
    - fotografía
    - medio
    - modernizar
    English:
    carbon dating
    - mastery
    - oil painting
    - skill
    - technique
    - coach
    - extensively
    - manager
    * * *
    1. [procedimiento] technique;
    en Florencia aprendió la técnica pictórica del fresco in Florence he learned the fresco technique;
    tiene mucha técnica she has very good technique, she's very skilful
    técnicas de reproducción asistida assisted reproduction techniques;
    técnicas de venta sales techniques
    2. [tecnología] technology;
    los grandes avances de la técnica great advances in technology
    3. [en baloncesto] technical foul;
    el árbitro le pitó una técnica al entrenador the referee blew the whistle for a technical foul by the trainer
    * * *
    f
    1 technique
    2 en baloncesto: infracción technical foul
    * * *
    1) : technique, skill
    2) : technology
    * * *
    técnica n technique

    Spanish-English dictionary > técnica

  • 4 Breguet, Abraham-Louis

    SUBJECT AREA: Horology
    [br]
    baptized 10 January 1747 Neuchâtel, Switzerland
    d. 17 September 1823 Paris, France
    [br]
    Swiss clock-and watchmaker who made many important contributions to horology.
    [br]
    When Breguet was 11 years old his father died and his mother married a Swiss watchmaker who had Paris connections. His stepfather introduced him to horology and this led to an apprenticeship in Paris, during which he also attended evening classes in mathematics at the Collège Mazarin. In 1775 he married and set up a workshop in Paris, initially in collaboration with Xavier Gide. There he established a reputation among the aristocracy for elegant and innovative timepieces which included a perpétuelle, or self-winding watch, which he developed from the ideas of Perrelet. He also enjoyed the patronage of Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI. During the French Revolution his life was in danger and in 1793 he fled to Neuchâtel. The two years he spent there comprised what was intellectually one of his most productive periods and provided many of the ideas that he was able to exploit after he had returned to Paris in 1795. By the time of his death he had become the most prestigious watchmaker in Europe: he supplied timepieces to Napoleon and, after the fall of the Empire, to Louis XVIII, as well as to most of the crowned heads of Europe.
    Breguet divided his contributions to horology into three categories: improvements in appearance and functionality; improvements in durability; and improvements in timekeeping. His pendule sympathique was in the first category and consisted of a clock which during the night set a watch to time, regulated it and wound it. His parachute, a spring-loaded bearing, made a significant contribution to the durability of a watch by preventing damage to its movement if it was dropped. Among the many improvements that Breguet made to timekeeping, two important ones were the introduction of the overcoil balance spring and the tourbillon. By bending the outside end of the balance spring over the top of the coils Breguet was able to make the oscillations of the balance isochronous, thus achieving for the flat spring what Arnold had already accomplished for the cylindrical balance spring. The timekeeping of a balance is also dependent on its position, and the tourbillon was an attempt to average-out positional errors by placing the balance wheel and the escapement in a cage that rotated once every minute. This principle was revived in a simplified form in the karussel at the end of the nineteenth century.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Horloger de la marine 1815. Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur 1815.
    Bibliography
    Breguet gathered information for a treatise on horology that was never published but which was later plagiarized by Louis Moinet in his Traité d'horlogerie, 1848.
    Further Reading
    G.Daniels, 1974, The An of Breguet, London (an account of his life with a good technical assessment of his work).
    DV

    Biographical history of technology > Breguet, Abraham-Louis

  • 5 Murray, Matthew

    [br]
    b. 1765 near Newcastle upon Tyne, England
    d. 20 February 1826 Holbeck, Leeds, England
    [br]
    English mechanical engineer and steam engine, locomotive and machine-tool pioneer.
    [br]
    Matthew Murray was apprenticed at the age of 14 to a blacksmith who probably also did millwrighting work. He then worked as a journeyman mechanic at Stockton-on-Tees, where he had experience with machinery for a flax mill at Darlington. Trade in the Stockton area became slack in 1788 and Murray sought work in Leeds, where he was employed by John Marshall, who owned a flax mill at Adel, located about 5 miles (8 km) from Leeds. He soon became Marshall's chief mechanic, and when in 1790 a new mill was built in the Holbeck district of Leeds by Marshall and his partner Benyon, Murray was responsible for the installation of the machinery. At about this time he took out two patents relating to improvements in textile machinery.
    In 1795 he left Marshall's employment and, in partnership with David Wood (1761– 1820), established a general engineering and millwrighting business at Mill Green, Holbeck. In the following year the firm moved to a larger site at Water Lane, Holbeck, and additional capital was provided by two new partners, James Fenton (1754–1834) and William Lister (1796–1811). Lister was a sleeping partner and the firm was known as Fenton, Murray \& Wood and was organized so that Fenton kept the accounts, Wood was the administrator and took charge of the workshops, while Murray provided the technical expertise. The factory was extended in 1802 by the construction of a fitting shop of circular form, after which the establishment became known as the "Round Foundry".
    In addition to textile machinery, the firm soon began the manufacture of machine tools and steam-engines. In this field it became a serious rival to Boulton \& Watt, who privately acknowledged Murray's superior craftsmanship, particularly in foundry work, and resorted to some industrial espionage to discover details of his techniques. Murray obtained patents for improvements in steam engines in 1799, 1801 and 1802. These included automatic regulation of draught, a mechanical stoker and his short-D slide valve. The patent of 1801 was successfully opposed by Boulton \& Watt. An important contribution of Murray to the development of the steam engine was the use of a bedplate so that the engine became a compact, self-contained unit instead of separate components built into an en-gine-house.
    Murray was one of the first, if not the very first, to build machine tools for sale. However, this was not the case with the planing machine, which he is said to have invented to produce flat surfaces for his slide valves. Rather than being patented, this machine was kept secret, although it was apparently in use before 1814.
    In 1812 Murray was engaged by John Blenkinsop (1783–1831) to build locomotives for his rack railway from Middleton Colliery to Leeds (about 3 1/2 miles or 5.6 km). Murray was responsible for their design and they were fitted with two double-acting cylinders and cranks at right angles, an important step in the development of the steam locomotive. About six of these locomotives were built for the Middleton and other colliery railways and some were in use for over twenty years. Murray also supplied engines for many early steamboats. In addition, he built some hydraulic machinery and in 1814 patented a hydraulic press for baling cloth.
    Murray's son-in-law, Richard Jackson, later became a partner in the firm, which was then styled Fenton, Murray \& Jackson. The firm went out of business in 1843.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Society of Arts Gold Medal 1809 (for machine for hackling flax).
    Further Reading
    L.T.C.Rolt, 1962, Great Engineers, London (contains a good short biography).
    E.Kilburn Scott (ed.), 1928, Matthew Murray, Pioneer Engineer, Leeds (a collection of essays and source material).
    Year 1831, London.
    L.T.C.Rolt, 1965, Tools for the Job, London; repub. 1986 (provides information on Murray's machine-tool work).
    Some of Murray's correspondence with Simon Goodrich of the Admiralty has been published in Transactions of the Newcomen Society 3 (1922–3); 6(1925–6); 18(1937– 8); and 32 (1959–60).
    RTS

    Biographical history of technology > Murray, Matthew

  • 6 Economy

       Portugal's economy, under the influence of the European Economic Community (EEC), and later with the assistance of the European Union (EU), grew rapidly in 1985-86; through 1992, the average annual growth was 4-5 percent. While such growth rates did not last into the late 1990s, portions of Portugal's society achieved unprecedented prosperity, although poverty remained entrenched. It is important, however, to place this current growth, which includes some not altogether desirable developments, in historical perspective. On at least three occasions in this century, Portugal's economy has experienced severe dislocation and instability: during the turbulent First Republic (1911-25); during the Estado Novo, when the world Depression came into play (1930-39); and during the aftermath of the Revolution of 25 April, 1974. At other periods, and even during the Estado Novo, there were eras of relatively steady growth and development, despite the fact that Portugal's weak economy lagged behind industrialized Western Europe's economies, perhaps more than Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar wished to admit to the public or to foreigners.
       For a number of reasons, Portugal's backward economy underwent considerable growth and development following the beginning of the colonial wars in Africa in early 1961. Recent research findings suggest that, contrary to the "stagnation thesis" that states that the Estado Novo economy during the last 14 years of its existence experienced little or no growth, there were important changes, policy shifts, structural evolution, and impressive growth rates. In fact, the average annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate (1961-74) was about 7 percent. The war in Africa was one significant factor in the post-1961 economic changes. The new costs of finance and spending on the military and police actions in the African and Asian empires in 1961 and thereafter forced changes in economic policy.
       Starting in 1963-64, the relatively closed economy was opened up to foreign investment, and Lisbon began to use deficit financing and more borrowing at home and abroad. Increased foreign investment, residence, and technical and military assistance also had effects on economic growth and development. Salazar's government moved toward greater trade and integration with various international bodies by signing agreements with the European Free Trade Association and several international finance groups. New multinational corporations began to operate in the country, along with foreign-based banks. Meanwhile, foreign tourism increased massively from the early 1960s on, and the tourism industry experienced unprecedented expansion. By 1973-74, Portugal received more than 8 million tourists annually for the first time.
       Under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano, other important economic changes occurred. High annual economic growth rates continued until the world energy crisis inflation and a recession hit Portugal in 1973. Caetano's system, through new development plans, modernized aspects of the agricultural, industrial, and service sectors and linked reform in education with plans for social change. It also introduced cadres of forward-looking technocrats at various levels. The general motto of Caetano's version of the Estado Novo was "Evolution with Continuity," but he was unable to solve the key problems, which were more political and social than economic. As the boom period went "bust" in 1973-74, and growth slowed greatly, it became clear that Caetano and his governing circle had no way out of the African wars and could find no easy compromise solution to the need to democratize Portugal's restive society. The economic background of the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was a severe energy shortage caused by the world energy crisis and Arab oil boycott, as well as high general inflation, increasing debts from the African wars, and a weakening currency. While the regime prescribed greater Portuguese investment in Africa, in fact Portuguese businesses were increasingly investing outside of the escudo area in Western Europe and the United States.
       During the two years of political and social turmoil following the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the economy weakened. Production, income, reserves, and annual growth fell drastically during 1974-76. Amidst labor-management conflict, there was a burst of strikes, and income and productivity plummeted. Ironically, one factor that cushioned the economic impact of the revolution was the significant gold reserve supply that the Estado Novo had accumulated, principally during Salazar's years. Another factor was emigration from Portugal and the former colonies in Africa, which to a degree reduced pressures for employment. The sudden infusion of more than 600,000 refugees from Africa did increase the unemployment rate, which in 1975 was 10-15 percent. But, by 1990, the unemployment rate was down to about 5-6 percent.
       After 1985, Portugal's economy experienced high growth rates again, which averaged 4-5 percent through 1992. Substantial economic assistance from the EEC and individual countries such as the United States, as well as the political stability and administrative continuity that derived from majority Social Democratic Party (PSD) governments starting in mid-1987, supported new growth and development in the EEC's second poorest country. With rapid infrastruc-tural change and some unregulated development, Portugal's leaders harbored a justifiable concern that a fragile environment and ecology were under new, unacceptable pressures. Among other improvements in the standard of living since 1974 was an increase in per capita income. By 1991, the average minimum monthly wage was about 40,000 escudos, and per capita income was about $5,000 per annum. By the end of the 20th century, despite continuing poverty at several levels in Portugal, Portugal's economy had made significant progress. In the space of 15 years, Portugal had halved the large gap in living standards between itself and the remainder of the EU. For example, when Portugal joined the EU in 1986, its GDP, in terms of purchasing power-parity, was only 53 percent of the EU average. By 2000, Portugal's GDP had reached 75 percent of the EU average, a considerable achievement. Whether Portugal could narrow this gap even further in a reasonable amount of time remained a sensitive question in Lisbon. Besides structural poverty and the fact that, in 2006, the EU largesse in structural funds (loans and grants) virtually ceased, a major challenge for Portugal's economy will be to reduce the size of the public sector (about 50 percent of GDP is in the central government) to increase productivity, attract outside investment, and diversify the economy. For Portugal's economic planners, the 21st century promises to be challenging.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Economy

  • 7 Donisthorpe, George Edmond

    SUBJECT AREA: Textiles
    [br]
    fl. c.1842 England
    [br]
    English inventor of a wool-combing machine.
    [br]
    Edmund Cartwright's combing machine needed a great deal of improvement before it could be used to tackle the finer qualities of wool. Various people carried out experiments over the next thirty years, including G.E.Donisthorpe of Leicester. Together with Henry Rawson, Donisthorpe obtained his first patent for improvements to wool combing in 1835, but his important ones were obtained in 1842 and 1843. These attracted the attention of S.C. Lister, who had become interested in developing a machine to comb wool after seeing the grim working conditions of the hand-combers supplying his mill at Manningham. Lister was quick to perceive that Donisthorpe's invention carried sufficient promise to replace the hand-comber, so in 1842 he made Donisthorpe an offer, which was accepted, of £2,000 for half the patent rights. In the following year Lister purchased the other half of the patent for £10,000, whereby Donisthorpe ceased to have any pecuniary interest in it. Lister took Donisthorpe into partnership and they worked together over the ensuing years with patience and diligence until they eventually succeeded in bringing out a combing machine that was generally acceptable. They were combing fine botany wool for the first time by machine in 1843. Further patents were taken out in their joint names in 1849 and 1850: these included the "nip" mechanism, the priority of which was disputed by Heilmann. Donisthorpe also took out patents for wool combing with John Whitehead in 1849 and John Crofts in 1853.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1835, British patent no. 6,808 (improvements to wool combing). 1842. British patent no. 9,404.
    1843. British patent no. 9,966.
    1843, British patent no. 9,780.
    1849, with S.C.Lister, British patent no. 12,712.
    1849, with S.C.Lister, British patent no. 13,009. 1849, with S.C.Lister, British patent no. 13,532. 1849, with John Whitehead, British patent no. 12,603. 1853, with John Crofts, British patent no. 216.
    Further Reading
    J.Hogg (ed.), c.1888, Fortunes Made in Business, London (provides an account of the association between Donisthorpe and Lister).
    W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London (explains the technical details of combing machines).
    C.Singer (ed.), 1958, A History of Technology, Vol. IV, Oxford: Clarendon Press (includes a good section on combing machines).
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Donisthorpe, George Edmond

  • 8 Darby, Abraham

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 1678 near Dudley, Worcestershire, England
    d. 5 May 1717 Madely Court, Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, England
    [br]
    English ironmaster, inventor of the coke smelting of iron ore.
    [br]
    Darby's father, John, was a farmer who also worked a small forge to produce nails and other ironware needed on the farm. He was brought up in the Society of Friends, or Quakers, and this community remained important throughout his personal and working life. Darby was apprenticed to Jonathan Freeth, a malt-mill maker in Birmingham, and on completion of his apprenticeship in 1699 he took up the trade himself in Bristol. Probably in 1704, he visited Holland to study the casting of brass pots and returned to Bristol with some Dutch workers, setting up a brassworks at Baptist Mills in partnership with others. He tried substituting cast iron for brass in his castings, without success at first, but in 1707 he was granted a patent, "A new way of casting iron pots and other pot-bellied ware in sand without loam or clay". However, his business associates were unwilling to risk further funds in the experiments, so he withdrew his share of the capital and moved to Coalbrookdale in Shropshire. There, iron ore, coal, water-power and transport lay close at hand. He took a lease on an old furnace and began experimenting. The shortage and expense of charcoal, and his knowledge of the use of coke in malting, may well have led him to try using coke to smelt iron ore. The furnace was brought into blast in 1709 and records show that in the same year it was regularly producing iron, using coke instead of charcoal. The process seems to have been operating successfully by 1711 in the production of cast-iron pots and kettles, with some pig-iron destined for Bristol. Darby prospered at Coalbrookdale, employing coke smelting with consistent success, and he sought to extend his activities in the neighbourhood and in other parts of the country. However, ill health prevented him from pursuing these ventures with his previous energy. Coke smelting spread slowly in England and the continent of Europe, but without Darby's technological breakthrough the ever-increasing demand for iron for structures and machines during the Industrial Revolution simply could not have been met; it was thus an essential component of the technological progress that was to come.
    Darby's eldest son, Abraham II (1711–63), entered the Coalbrookdale Company partnership in 1734 and largely assumed control of the technical side of managing the furnaces and foundry. He made a number of improvements, notably the installation of a steam engine in 1742 to pump water to an upper level in order to achieve a steady source of water-power to operate the bellows supplying the blast furnaces. When he built the Ketley and Horsehay furnaces in 1755 and 1756, these too were provided with steam engines. Abraham II's son, Abraham III (1750–89), in turn, took over the management of the Coalbrookdale works in 1768 and devoted himself to improving and extending the business. His most notable achievement was the design and construction of the famous Iron Bridge over the river Severn, the world's first iron bridge. The bridge members were cast at Coalbrookdale and the structure was erected during 1779, with a span of 100 ft (30 m) and height above the river of 40 ft (12 m). The bridge still stands, and remains a tribute to the skill and judgement of Darby and his workers.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    A.Raistrick, 1989, Dynasty of Iron Founders, 2nd edn, Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust (the best source for the lives of the Darbys and the work of the company).
    H.R.Schubert, 1957, History of the British Iron and Steel Industry AD 430 to AD 1775, London: Routledge \& Kegan Paul.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Darby, Abraham

  • 9 Koenig, Friedrich

    SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing
    [br]
    b. 17 April 1774 Eisleben, Thuringia, Germany
    d. 17 January 1833 Oberzell, near Würzburg, Germany
    [br]
    German inventor of the machine printing press.
    [br]
    Koenig became a printer and bookseller. Around 1800 he was among those who conceived the idea of mechanizing the hand printing press, which apart from minor details had survived virtually unchanged through the first three and a half centuries of printing. In 1803, in Sühl, Saxony, he designed a press in which the flat forme, carrying the type, was mechanically inked and passed to and from the platen. Whether this ma-chine was ever constructed is not known, but Koenig found little support for his ideas because of lack of technical and financial resources. So, in 1806, he went to England and was introduced to Thomas Bensley, a book printer off Fleet Street in London. Bensley agreed to support Koenig and brought in two other printers to help finance Koenig's experiments. Another German, Andreas Bauer, an engineer, assisted Koenig and became largely responsible for the practical execution of Koenig's plans.
    In 1810 they patented a press which was steam-driven but still used a platen. It was set to work in Bensley's office the following year but did not prove to be satisfactory. Koenig redesigned it, and in October 1811 he obtained a patent for a steam-driven press on an entirely new principle. In place of the platen, the paper was fixed around a hollow rotating cylinder, which impressed the paper on to the inked forme. In Bensley's office it was used for book printing, but its increased speed over the hand press appealed to newspaper proprietors and John Walter II of The Times asked Koenig to make a double-cylinder machine, so that the return stroke of the forme would be productive. A further patent was taken out in 1813 and the new machine was made ready to print the 29 November 1814 issue—in secrecy, behind closed doors, to forestall opposition from the pressmen working the hand presses. An important feature of the machine was that the inking rollers were not of the traditional leather or skin but a composite material made from glue, molasses and some soda. The inking could not have been achieved satisfactorily with the old materials. The editorial of that historic issue proclaimed, 'Our Journal of this day presents to the public the practical result of the greatest improvement connected with printing, since the discovery of the art itself Koenig's machine press could make 1,200 impressions an hour compared to 200 with the hand press; further improvements raised this figure to 1,500–2,000. Koenig's last English patent was in 1814 for an improved cylinder machine and a perfecting machine, which printed both sides of the paper. The steam-driven perfecting press was printing books in Bensley's office in February 1816. Koenig and Bauer wanted by that time to manufacture machine presses for other customers, but Bensley, now the principal shareholder, insisted that they should make machines for his benefit only. Finding this restriction intolerable, Koenig and Bauer returned to Germany: they became partners in a factory at Oberzell, near Würzburg, in 1817 and the firm of Koenig and Bauer flourishes there to this day.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.Moran, 1973, Printing Presses, London: Faber \& Faber.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Koenig, Friedrich

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